Phase evolution of the surface iron (hydr)oxides to the iron sulfide through anion exchange during sulfidation of zero valent iron

The naturally-formed iron (hydr)oxides on the surface of zero valent iron (ZVI) have long been considered as passivation layer and inert phases which significantly reduce the reaction activities when they are employed in environmental remediation. Although it seems there are no direct benefits to keep these passivation layers, here, we show that such phases are necessary intermediates for the transformation to iron sulfides through an anion exchange pathway during sulfidation of ZVI. The pre-formed (hydr)oxides undergo a phase evolution upon aging and specific phases can be effectively trapped, which can be confirmed by a combination of different characterization techniques including scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD), and X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy. Interestingly, after sulfidation, the resultant samples originated from different (hydr)oxides demonstrate different activities in the Cr(VI) sequestration. The XANES investigation of Fe K edge and Fe L 2,3 edge indicates Fe remains the same after sulfidation, suggesting a non-redox, anion exchange reaction pathway for the production of iron sulfides, where O 2- anions are directly replaced with S 2- . Consequently, the structural characteristics of the parent (hydr)oxides are inherited by the as-formed iron sulfides, which make them behave differently because of their different structural natures.